Compare and differentiate the nature of the imagination in Tintern Essay

Compare and differentiate the nature of the imagination in Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth and Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge - Essay Example erences could be more marked that in Coleridges â€Å"Kubla Khan†, and Wordsworths â€Å"Tintern Abbey†, two poems that are as different in tone, subject matter, and treatment that it seems possible for two poems to be. â€Å"Kubla Khan† is an elaborate and sensual adventure, it is fantastical and a phonic treat, conjuring amazing, startling images in the minds eye and enacting this creation through the medium of sybaritic, mesmerising poetry. â€Å"Tintern Abbey†, on the other hand, written as it is in blank verse, is more austere and more consciously philosophical. Its dominant mode is not that of the image, but of thought, its rhythm more steady. These differences, albeit whilst they mask some similarities, are indicative of Wordsworth and Coleridges divergent understanding of the nature of the imagination. For a large part of the critical history of â€Å"Kubla Khan†, the poem has been considered as something slight, when it was published it was considered nothing more interesting that a nonsense poem. This reading is certainly a mistake and one made, I imagine, because of a misunderstanding of how to read the poem. It cannot be read, or at least to understand its significance it should not be read, on an ordinary level, for its word by word, phrase by phrase significances. Rather the very motion of the poem, its exaltation in creation is its sense; the poems means of creation is equal to what is created. In other words, the meaning of this imaginative poem, a poem that the imagination has slaved long over, is imagination itself. If we see the imagination at work as that which is represented in the poem, then we can also decipher precisely what the nature of imagination is in Coleridges conception. For example, in the very first stanza we see Kubla Khan â€Å"decree† his â€Å"stately pleasure dome† (2). Note that he decrees it, he does not decree that it be built. Then, seemingly out of nowhere, its construction begins: â€Å"So twice five miles of fertile ground /

Memorable Experience Essay Example for Free

Memorable Experience Essay There has been many good and many bad things in my life. Although it was only at the age of five, I will always remember when my godfather David passed away. My mom dad and I lived together with David in Mathews, Virginia. I was always with him and would never leave his side; I was more attached to him than I was to my father. We did everything together we went to the playground, he took me to work with him, and we would take our dog on walks. He was the most special person to me, and I will always have a burning hole in my heart without him by my side. It was my birthday, May 18th, 2002 and my family would always take me out to dinner on my birthday. The whole day I couldn’t wait for David to get home so we could get ready together for dinner, I hadn’t seen him all day because he had work, and I had school. When he arrived at our house as usual he came to my room and gave me the biggest bear hug, David said, â€Å"Are you ready for our dinner sweetheart.† I said, â€Å"Yes, I’ve been waiting all day I’m so excited to go.† So we both got ready for dinner, I chose to eat a Ruby Tuesdays because when I was that age it was my favorite restaurant. Before we went to dinner mom, dad, and David gave me the presents that they had gotten me, of course I was thankful for everything I had gotten. Mom, dad, and I drove separately from David; he rode his motorcycle. We had the best time at dinner, and I thoroughly enjoyed myself. I loved eating out away from home, and it was always a big treat to me. Since it was my birthday I ordered a steak, the staff surprised me by singing Happy Birthday and bringing me a free piece of delicious chocolate lava cake. Chocolate lava cake happened to be my favorite dessert so you could not imagine the happiness it brought me for them to surprise me with it. Afterward, we all went to Walmart and David told me I could pick out one toy from the toy isle, and he would buy it for me. This treatment was nothing out of the ordinary David always treated me like a princess and bought me little gifts just because. Once we checked out at Walmart, we all decided we would meet back at the house. David wouldn’t be home until a little after us because he was some plans to take care of, but he told me he loved me and would see me in the morning before he went to work. Later that night my mom woke me up and said David had lost control of his motorcycle going around a turn and had gotten split in half by a road sign. I couldn’t believe what happened I was astonished, I was in doubt. It just couldn’t be true that someone that I loved so much was tooken from me  on what is supposed to be the best day each year for me. I cried and cried. At his funeral, the preacher spoke of me, how special of a person I was to him and that I was the light of his eyes. Anywhere David was I was strolling right behind him with the biggest smile on my face. The preacher said, â€Å"If any of you lose hope that he is not on this earth anymore, look at that little girl because he will always be watching over her.† Each birthday I start my day off with going to see my Guardian Angel at his resting place. He has always been and forever will be a part of my heart. In life, this has taught me anything can change in a matter of seconds people come and go, even people who mean the world to you. Sadly you can’t change what has happened but you have to move forward and grow from the experience because I know that he continually watches over me and will never leave my side.

Realm of Labor Essay -- Labor History, Technological Revolution

Separation can develop from anywhere or anyone over periods of time since people’s needs, desires, and goals are very diverse. The variety of people with dissimilar interest can cause tensions among groups, especially in the modern age. There are three categories that contributed to the physical and abstract separation all within the realm of labor: workers versus machines, skilled versus unskilled labors or workers, and immigrant versus non-immigrant workers. These three all intertwine and connect to one another under the world of labor. Along with lectures, historians and writers Herbert G. Gutman, J.M. Roberts, Ann L. Stoler, and Rudyard Kipling addressed the causes and consequences brought about from the three categories, which led to separation. The effects divided workers among themselves, thus created the idea of separation. Before the modern age, workers generally created their own products by hand, but this type of labor process has changed drastically with the rise of new technology and resources. Due to this change, workers were unconnected to their products; since they were no longer involved in the production, they were essentially separated from the creation. During the Industrial Revolution and the Second Industrial Revolution, otherwise known as the Technological Revolution, the rise of technology brought in new machinery that replaced workers. Machines controlled workers; as mentioned in lecture, workers lost all control when they were part of the assembly line. Also in Charlie Chaplin's film, Modern Times, workers had little or no control over the pace of the work, and the smallest distractions can slow down production. This was how workers and labor were described in the mechanized world. Herbert G. Gutman exp... ...inctively divided people; immigrants came in to work and better their lives and lives of their family, but instead were discriminated against and driven out. What make people different in society can result in the process of separation; it can be positive in terms of originality for an individual, but disastrous in the workplace. Separation in labor was proven to cause tensions among workers who were skilled, unskilled, immigrants, and non-immigrants. The division among them was both physical and abstract; the machines separated them as well as race and their own views. People were forced to unite and work together, but their differences created isolation and an inefficient work environment. It is inevitable to group diverse people in one place without conflicts. Separation was analyzed as an outcome of how people work, behave, and interact with others in society.

Summary of the Omnivore’s Dilemma

Human  Ethology  Bulletin,  October  2007] The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals By  Michael  Pollan Penguin  Press,  New  York,  NY. 2006,  450pp. ISBN  1? 59420? 082? 3  [Hdbk. ,  $26. 95] Reviewed by William F. McKibbin and Todd K. Shackelford Florida Atlantic University, Dept. of Psychology, Davie, FL 33314 USA [E-mail: [email  protected] edu, [email  protected] edu] The  Omnivore’s  Dilemma  is  the  latest  book  by  Michael  Pollan,  best  known  for  his  previous  best? selling  work,  The  Botany  of  Desire. Here,  Pollan  has  crafted  a  well? written  and  enjoyable   exploration  of  humans’  relationship  with  food.The  book  is  written  for  a  lay  audience,  but  is   appreciable  by  all. Pollan  begins  by  focusing  on  a  seemingly  simple  question,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"What  should  we  h ave  for  dinner? †Ã‚   The  answer,  it  seems,  is  not  so  simple  for  omnivores  like  us. Pollan  guides  the  reader  by   examining  the  three  major  types  of  food  production  and  divides  the  book  into  these  three areas:   Industrial  (focusing  on  the  modern  food  industry’s  reliance  on  corn),  Pastoral  (focusing  on   organic  food  production,  both  Ã¢â‚¬Å"big†Ã‚  and  Ã¢â‚¬Å"small†Ã‚  scale),  and  Personal  (focusing  on  personally   hunting  and  gathering  one’s  food).The  first,  Industrial  section  of  the  book  demonstrates  that  nearly  everything  we  consume  in   Western  society,  particularly  in  America,  is  in  some  way  derived  from  corn. The  processed   foods  that  seem  a  staple  of  modern  living  ar e  derived  largely  (if  not  wholly)  from  corn. Even   foods  such  as  eggs,  chicken,  fish,  and  beef  are  essentially  derived  from  corn:  cows,  chickens,   and  fish  are  coerced  to  consume  a  food  that  to  them  is  highly  unnatural. If  w

Effect of Ph on Food Preservatives Essay

Sodium Benzoate is a common food preservative used in food products such as jams and jellies, soft drinks, pickles, condiments etc and in tinned products in the market. This experiment aimed to determine whether benzoic acid is formed from it’s superior soluble form sodium benzoate in stomach acid, which is simulated by HCl (pH=2). It has been seen that at a low optimum pH, i.e. in the presence of sufficient hydrochloric acid, sufficient benzoic acid is yielded. The percentage yield is determined from the calculations of the theoretical (stoichiometric) calculations and the actual yield from the reaction. Also throughout the experiment, some basic laboratory operations such as measuring mass and volume, separating solids from liquids by vacuum filtration and drying solids are familiarized with. Introduction The reaction of sodium benzoate and hydrochloric acid is a typical phenomenon of hydrolysis reaction which conforms to the principles of acid-base chemistry and stoichiometry. In a typical hydrolysis reaction, when a salt dissolves in water, the salt dissociates to its constituent anions and cations (benzoate and sodium ions respectively). Also, when strong acids like hydrochloric acid dissolves in water, chloride ions and hydronium ions are formed. Hence in the reaction involving sodium benzoate and hydrochloric acid solution, in the presence of high concentration of hydronium ions, protons will be transferred from the strong acid H3O+ to the basic benzoate ion. This will yield benzoic acid, C6H5COOH which precipitates from the solution as it has a really poor solubility (0.34g/100ml). The fundamental reaction is sketched out below: As can be seen from the difference in the pKa values, H3O+ is a much stronger acid than benzoic acid. So, the equilibrium of the reaction strongly favours its completion and hence hydrochloric acid which ideally simulates the acidic conditions of the stomach, does convert benzoate to benzoic acid. Safety: Throughout the lab safety goggles, protective gloves and aprons were worn while carrying out the experiments. While transferring the HCl to the reaction vial in the student hood, the head must never be inside the glass hood as vapour inhalation can cause choking hazard and irritations. Also the hosepipes were carefully plugged in and out of the filter flask to avoid breakage or tipping of the Hirsh funnel. Experimental For this experiment and basic operations, calibrated Pasteur pipettes, a 5ml conical reaction vial, watch glass, stirring rod, electronic balance, small test tube, Hirsh funnel, filter flask and filter paper are used. The procedure for this experiment appears on page 7 of the lab manual, Multiscale Organic Chemistry (4th custom UB edition)3. As the primary objective of this experiment was to find out whether sodium benzoate reacts with simulated stomach acid to form benzoic acid, the results clearly indicate that a successful reaction close to completion, if not fully complete, has taken place. The percentage yield calculation reveals that approximately 90% of benzoic acid as white precipitate were recovered from the reaction. There were a number of factors which might have contributed to the 10% deficiency in the final yield. It needs to be mentioned though that a percentage yield of less than 100% is achieved because the drying of the solid mass after vacuum filtration was sufficient to give a practical number. During measurements of mass of benzoate and benzoic acid when it’s formed, there were obvious human errors involved. Some benzoates were lost while transferring to the conical reaction vial from the watch glasses, and further loss of the product benzoic acid might have taken place when the solution mixture was tipped on the Hirsh funnel. We couldn’t determine if the reaction was complete or not, so we might not have had all the salt converted 4. The solution might not have sufficiently and gradually cooled though every effort was made for that, hence there could be lack of benzoic acid crystals forming. The litmus test might have contributed to a significant loss of the precipitate, but only one instead of multiple tests were performed to see if the reaction mixture was acidic enough. Given the carefully controlled experiments and the 90% yield, it can be deemed that the methods used to perform the experiments are full proof and performed as immaculately as possible. Conclusion The fact that a new substance is formed indeed when sodium benzoate is placed into a simulated stomach acid has been demonstrated successfully with the aid of the experiments and aforementioned results. A 90% yield suggests that all the basic operations were carried out as neatly and carefully as possible and measures taken to minimize obvious errors which could take place while performing the experiments. All in all, the experiment provided a practical evidence of the theory behind the hydrolysis of sodium benzoate and percentage yield of it’s product.

Black Like Me Essays

Black Like Me Essays Black Like Me Essay Black Like Me Essay Essay Topic: Black Boy Argument and Evidence Argument: Segregation is a huge part of this book and I think that the concept of racism is wrong and should not be used under any circumstances for any reason. Evidence: Page 8-10: Mr.. Griffin goes to visit Mr.. Levitate and tries to see if he will help him publish the book he soon wants to make after his experiment. The experiment is to change his skin color to black and try to resolve discrimination with the black and white people. Mr.. Levitate thinks this is a crazy idea and thinks hes sure to get killed he second someone finds out about what hes doing. 0 This shows that it was extremely dangerous to try anything like this back in that time period because everyone was very pro-racism. I think it shouldnt have to be dangerous to do this. I think its smart of him, in a way, because hes trying to fix things that shouldnt even be a problem. In other words, it shouldnt be dangerous because everyone is the same no matter what skin color and this happened to be a problem back then. Page 124-131: Mr.. Griffin is on the bus, in the back as usual, and two white women board and are unable to find a seat. The bus driver sees this and demands a young black man to move for them, but he refuses over and over again. Right at that time, a tall, buff, red-headed white man threatens to beat up the boy if he doesnt move, yet he still refuses. The bus driver wont let any rough housing go on and finally one of the women tell the bus driver that its okay and they dont mind, feeling bad for being the cause of all the drama. This shows that it wasnt even allowed for two of a different color to sit together. I think this is wrong because again, everyone is equal, but they didnt know that in this time. When the white man offered to beat him up because he wouldnt move it showed the pure hatred the white race had for the blacks, which is very wrong. Page 152-155: One morning, Mr.. Griffin receives a call from a newspaper he had recently done an interview for and tells him about his hanging effigy at one of the main intersections. He is very perplexed by this and starts to worry about how out-of-control its getting so fast. 0 This shows that when he came clean and people started to find out about this it did not have the positive effect he thought it would. Instead, it made everyone furious, especially the whites because he had betrayed them. I think this is awful because these people are not thinking from his point of view and are Just going along with the times of racism, which is not good or rightful. Black Like Me By Kayaking

Quality Control Measures at Benue Breweries Limited, Makurdi

Quality Control Measures at Benue Breweries Limited, Makurdi Free Online Research Papers A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, MAKURDI, BENUE STATE, NIGERIA. IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN INDUSTRIAL PHYSICS APRIL, 2010? DECLARATION I declare that this project work is my original work and has not been previously submitted for any degree to any university or similar institution. . EGWUATU FELIX IKECHUKWU DATE CERTIFICATION This to certify that this project is an original work carried out by EGWUATU FELIX IKECHUKWU, with the registration number UE/9400/06 under the supervision of Prof, E.H. AGBA in the Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Makurdi and meets the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science Honors in Industrial Physics .. Prof. E.H. AGBA DATE PROJECT SUPERVISOR . Dr. A.N. AMAH DATE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT .. . EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE DEDICATION This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God the giver of all good things, who has given me the inspiration and zeal that saw me through this programme and also to my uncle Late Mr. Ejike Callistus Okwegba who is no longer here to witness how mighty the little seed he sow has turned out to be. ACKNOWLEGEMENT I wish to express my immense gratitude to the Almighty God, the giver of all knowledge and the protector who has guided me throughout the period of my programme and has made it possible for me to successfully carry out this project. Also my profound gratitude goes to my parents Sir. Felix .N. Egwuatu and Lady Bridget Egwuatu for their fervent prayers, good parental upbringing, supports and above all for all the love they shower upon me all my life. I am also indebted to my siblings Mrs. Ogochukwu Okogba, Mrs. Chinyere Ekeh, Kenechukwu, Somtochukwu, Chukwuebuka, and Nzubechukwu Egwuatu and to my uncles and aunts Mrs. Benedette Oforah, Miss Maria Egwuatu, Mr Mrs. Richard Egwuatu, Mr Mrs. Jerome Egwuatu, late Mr Ejike Okwegba, Rev. Sr. Pat Okwegba, and to my in-law Lt. M.C. Okogba, to my nieces Uzoma and Chinwe Okogba and Omasilichukwu Ekeh and to my cousins, Ijeoma Ikala, Ekenedilichukwu, Chioma ,Chika, Chukwuma and Onyebuchi Oforah and to my best friend Jane Onwunumagha for their pra yers, care and supports. Many thanks to my H.O.D Dr. A.N. Amah, my project supervisor Prof. E.H Agba and all the lecturers in the department who with their individual efforts have helped me to achieve my goals. My appreciation goes to my mentors Late Eng. J.L.C. Ifem, Late Mr. Ephraim Akwuaka, Mrs. Akwuaka, Mrs. L.N. Tse (Ag. Registrar Uni-Agric, Makurdi) and Mrs. Asoh ( Quality control manager, bbl, Makurdi) for their efforts and supports towards my education and to my coursemates most especially Cosmas Agbo, Ejegwoya Peter Ogah (Odinga), Amuzie Chimex Tsev Terkimbi, Olusegun Ishola, Udeh Inalegwu, Davis Onojason, and Lawal Joseph. I pray that the Almighty God will reward you all accordingly. ABSTRACT The importance of quality has been long recognized in the manufacturing environment in order to obtain or manufacture higher quality products. In manufacturing environment, quality improves reliability, increases productivity and customer satisfaction. Quality in manufacturing requires the practices of quality control. This research work addresses the study on quality control in Benue Brewery Limited (bbl) makers of more lager beer. The case study involves measurement of some randomly selected finished products (more lager beer). This work focuses on result of the physical measurement of the products (volume content) from the company which were analyzed using some Statistical Quality Control tools. Included are Descriptive statistics (mean and range), Acceptance sampling and Control chart for variables (mean chart and range chart).Based on the findings of the work none of the plotted values in fig.4.1 and fig.4.2 went out of the control limits (upper and lower) rather clustered round the centre lines which shows that the production is under control and it can be said that the machines are functioning properly. ? TABLE OF CONTENT Content Page Title Page: i Declaration: ii Certification: iii Dedication; iv Acknowledgement v Abstract: vi Table of Contents: vii List of Figures: x List of Tables: xi CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of Study: 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem: 6 1.3 Objective of the Study: 6 1.4 Significance of the Study: 7 1.5 Scope of Study: 8 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 9 2.1 Review: 9 2.2 Overview: 9 2.3 History of Quality Control: 14 2.4 Quality Assurance: 15 2.5 Statistical Quality Control: 17 2.6 Components of Quality Control: 18 2.7. Implementation of Quality Control: 20 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODOLOGY 22 3.1 Method of Data Collection: 22 3.2 Method of Data Analysis: 23 3.3 Measurement of the volume content of the bottles: 28 3.4 Problems and Limitation of Data Collection: 29 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, CALCULATION AND DISCUSION 31 4.1 Data Presentation and Calculation. 31 4.2 Discussion: 47 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 49 5.1 Conclusion 49 5.2 Recommendation 50 REFERENCES: 52 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Typical steps of quality control: 16 2.2 Typical steps of quality assurance 16 4.1. The Mean Control Chart: 45 4.2 The Range Chart 47 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.1: Raw data distribution table: 32 4.2: Mean-Range distribution table 42 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of study Quality control (QC) being one of the prominent activities employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product or service, has emerged as a prime engine and an important factor for any successful industry operating in today’s highly competitive business environment. However, the industries in the developing countries that are problem oriented in terms of competition in the market are also adopting the concepts and techniques of quality control in their various business strategies. Interestingly, businesses in Nigeria are beginning to realize the importance and adopting the concepts of quality control to achieve excellence and effectiveness in their products and services. Manufacturing industries for example are taking the lead in adopting and implementing the contemporary quality control to optimum advantage. Quality control is a topic pioneered by manufacturing sectors. Nowadays the field has developed tremendously and its techniques, tools, concepts and methodologies can be applied widely in both sides service and manufacturing sectors. There are wide available techniques to control product or process quality. Among them are statistical process control (SPC) tools, acceptance sampling, fail mode and effects analysis (FMEA), six sigma, design of experiments (DoE). Quality has become a decisive factor in attracting customers. Quality can be defined as fulfilling specification or customer’s requirement, without any defect. A product is said to be high in quality if it is functioning as expected and reliable. Quality control is an activity to ensure that items are fulfilling these criteria. Most of tools and techniques to control quality are statistical techniques. Quality control techniques can be classified into basic, intermediate and advance level, but there is no consensus among researchers in the classification. For example, Xie and Goh (1999) regard DoE as an intermediate level technique whereas Antony et al (1998) classified the techniques as advanced. Nevertheless, the content is more important than classification. Among, the basic techniques are Statistical Process Control (SPC). SPC is a statistical approach for assisting operators, supervisors and managers to manage quality and eliminate special cases of variability in a process (Oakland 2003). The initial role of SPC is to prevent product or process deterioration rather identifying product or process deterioration, but Xie and Goh (1999) suggest for its new role to actively identifying opportunity for improvement. Fail Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is a powerful method to detect where exactly problems can occur and prioritize possible problems in order of their severity (Dale et al, 2003). The tool is useful to identify problems in product, i.e. design FMEA as well as to troubleshoot problems in process, i.e. process FMEA (Xie and Goh 1999). Six-sigma is also a statistical tool for ensuring defect free products through process continuous improvement (CI). The term Six-Sigma originated at Motorola and many organizations have set goal towards a six sigma level of performance (Breyfogle and Cupello 2001). The application of six-sigma has been mainly used in manufacturing industry. An example of the use of six-sigma in non manufacturing industry is in software development (Mahanti and Antony 2005) Process Capability study is an efficient method to examine the capability of a process to produce items that meet specifications. The method gains rapid growing interest due to increased use of quality system QS9000, where use of process capability studies is requested (Deleryd et al, 2009). The findings from capability study might need adjustment of process using other statistical techniques such as SPC or DoE. Capability studies conducted Motorcu and Gullu (2004) and Srikaeo et al (2005) show that the machine tool and process capability and production stability was evaluated and necessary steps to reduce poor quality production was carried out using other statistical techniques. Acceptance Sampling is another statistical technique to make a decision whether to accept or reject a lot based on the information from the sample. The application of acceptance sampling allows industries to minimize product destruction during inspection and testing and to increase inspection quality and effectiveness. The application of acceptance has been mainly used in manufacturing industry. Similarly, its application in non manufacturing industry is widely reported such as. Quality control is the activity we use to manage our businesses. It is based on integrating quality principles into everything we do, it has the power to direct and process our efforts and ensure that we meet the needs of our customers, employees and communities at large. Thus the philosophy underlying the implementation of quality control strategy is for the company or organization to see customers and clients as the vital key to their company’s success. It means that companies with quality control concepts see their (corporate performance and productivity) through the eyes of their customers and clients and then measure them against customer/client expectations. Such company will serve the customers best by providing quality goods and services. The predominant notion of such company is not how to make initial profit, but to give quality service to their customer. It should, however, be borne in mind that implementing quality control concept and techniques require substantial measurement and considerable survey and research. In other words, it implies that to improve quality, company or organization must regularly carry-out research or survey to evaluate products and services. The concept of quality as we think of it now first emerged out of industrial revolution. Decades, have witnessed rapid development of some concepts and principles along this line. The history of quality control is undoubtedly as old as industry. During the middle ages, quality was to large extent controlled by the long period of training and development required by the guilds. This training instilled pride in workers for quality of a product. When the concept of specialization was introduced during the industrial revolution, workers found that they no longer made their entire product only a portion and this change brought about decline in workmanship because most products manufactured during the period were not complicated. But as products became more complicated and jobs more specialized, it became necessary to inspect products after manufacturing. In 1924, Schewhart of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a statistical chart for control of product variables and this was considered to be the beginning of statistical quality control (SQC). Later in the same decade, H.F Dodge and H.G Roming, both of Bell Telephone Laboratories, developed the area of acceptance sampling a substitute for 100% inspection. In 1946, the American Society for Quality was formed. This organization through its publications, conferences and training sessions prompted the use of quality for all types of productions and services. In 1950, Edwards Deming, who learned statistical control from Schwart, gave a series of lectures on statistical methods to Japanese engineers and on quality responsibility to Chief Executive Officers of the largest organizations in Japan. Also in 1954, Joseph Juran made his first trip to Japan and further emphasized management’s responsibility to achieve quality. Using these concepts Japanese set the quality standards for the rest of the world to follow. This resulted in the formation of the first quality control circle in Japan by 1960 for the purpose of quality improvement using simple statistical techniques. By late 1970s and early 1980s US managers were making frequent trips to Japan to learn about the Japanese miracle. Here in Nigeria, Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) is one of the public agencies established by the government whose aim is for the welfare of the consumers. It is formed for the purpose of ensuring that products and services conform to certain specified standard. It stipulates quality, weights and measures that must be conformed by business. 1.2 Statement of the problem. This research work is carried with main aim of evaluating quality control measures on productivity in Benue Brewery Limited (bbl). An appropriate quality control measure is not just to identify or flags those factors that could directly affect the quality of goods and services but also to maintain an environment in which all employees are empowered to participate as a team in determining, assuring, measuring and improving the quality of the organization. It includes the use of facts and data gathered from the research survey to implement quality control philosophy with overall aim of increasing customers’ satisfaction and profitability. Thus, the basic philosophy of quality control will be examined in detailed and their interplay in having total quality. Upon examination of these problems, suggestions and recommendations will be made based on result of findings emerging from tested steps. 1.3 Objectives of study. Since, there are a lot of competitions in the brewery industries here in Nigeria and in order to stay in the struggle, they have no other option other than to adopt and implement quality control measures in all the activities of their industries which will also give rise to the amount of profits they make. The objective of the study includes: Evaluation of impact of quality control measures on production at bbl. Evaluation of process of production at bbl and make recommendation on how best to implement quality control in order to enhance productivity and also recommend which measures to be taken. 1.4. Significance of the study. The significance of this research work stems from impact and importance of quality control on productivity. Since most industries in Nigeria are being limited as a result of management techniques and skills from the large reservoir of potentials and existing materials that would aid success in the industry. This research is very significant as proper and adequate applications of sound measures will yield high corporate performance and productivity. This research will therefore reveal most important information about quality control, its techniques and concepts and also proffer some useful information to industries or individuals etc. that would like to implement it. It is also hoped that this research will stimulate industries to re-examine its management policies, techniques and measures by embracing quality control towards improving their corporate performance and productivity. 1.5. Scopes and limitations of the study. In this research, the scope is limited to evaluating the impact of quality control on the process of production in manufacturing industry. This research shall focus on the volume content of the products produce in Benue Brewery Limited (bbl) as a case study. It is a company that engaged in the production beer (more lager beer) CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW. 2.1 Review. The world economy has undergone rapid changes during the past two decades with the advent of global competition to an extent that almost every company (large or small) is touched by it in some ways. As creativity and innovation are necessary for bringing forth the change required to obtain competitive advantage, quality is the most effective factor a company or organization can use in the battle for customers/ clients. To be competitive, the customers must be satisfied and to satisfy the customers we must focus on quality. Quality control provides the philosophy and driving force for designing quality in order to delight the customers by focusing on best value of a company’s products and services. 2.2 Overview of quality control. Quality control is those activities and techniques used to achieve and maintain a high standard of quality in a transformation process. They may include systematic inspection of inputs and outputs, or a sample of input and output at various stages in their transformation to ensure that acceptable tolerances are not being exceeded. They may also involve a statistical analysis of data produced by the sampling (particularly in line production), benchmarking, continuous improvement (CI) and supplier partnering. In this case, in traditional organizations, management has to balance the costs incurred against the customers’ goodwill. Quality control is also concerned with finding and eliminating the causes of quality problems. Since quality control deals with quality of products and services, it seems important that the first step towards understanding the meaning of the phrase would require an understanding of the word quality. The word quality is often used to describe goods and services. Quality can be defined as a measure of the degree to which a particular product or service satisfies customers expectations with respect to tangible and intangible features of the product or service. However, Andrew .J. Marlow (2006) view quality as integral part of all products including services. It is an important consumer decision criterion in selecting among competitive products. Deming (1986) saw quality as aiming at the needs of the customers (present and future). Robert Kotler (1994) view a product’s quality as the ability to perform its functions. It includes the product’s overall durability, reliability, precision, ease of operation and repairs and other valued attributes. Although, some of these attributes can be measured objectively from marketing point of view, but quality should be measured in terms of buyers’ perception. Sullivan (1986) showed evidence on this issue when he defined seven stages of quality in Japan in order of increasing level of quality to include: product oriented, process oriented, system oriented, humanistic, society, cost oriented and quality function deployment (QFD). Juran defined quality as fitness for purpose. While Cro sby (1979) saw quality primarily as conformance to requirement. Broh (1982) defined quality as the degree of excellence at an acceptable price and control of variability at an acceptable cost. However, quality improvement has become the key factor for the success and growth of any business organization. Investment on quality improvement gives rich returns. Japan is the best example. There are many different ways in which quality can be approached, so one might wonder which one is the best for technical documentation. Unfortunately, there is no simple answer because quality is relative. It depends not only on the subject matter, but also on perceptions of quality from different view point. A company’s executive board might approach quality in terms of valve for money. They want technical documentation that can be produced quickly and cheaply. An engineer’s approach to quality might be one expressed in terms of technical accuracy and completeness. All approaches to quality can be combined to create a system from whichever angle you choose to implement a quality control system. You should start with the following plan: Have a clear definition of what is to be achieved and when (typically identified in the content of specification and project plan) Be clear about the activities and functions that are needed to be performed (which can be documented as codes of practice) Implement a control system in which activities, functions and outcomes can be monitored and, if necessary revised Unfortunately, like as said earlier, most of these definitions are subjective. Although the manufacturing-base and product-base approaches are objective, quality has to be defined by the company or organization concerned. Having agreed that quality is a necessary prerequisite for any company operating in today’s highly competitive business environment, it is therefore, implied that as quality varies from one company to another, it also dependent on their mission, policy and other elements that guide the company in the realization of its corporate goals. It is therefore, a common knowledge that in the manufacturing sector, quality is everything essentially, it is the product. From an institutional point of view, quality control can cover not just products, services and processes, but also people. It also maintains environment in which all employees are empowered to participate as a team in determining, measuring and improving quality of a company. It involves the examination of a product, service or process for certain minimum levels of quality. The main aim is to identify products or services that do not meet a company’s specified standard of quality and also to use facts and data to implement measure with the overall aim of increasing customers’ satisfaction, profitability and job satisfaction. According, to ISO 9000(International Organization for Standard), quality control is the operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfill requirements for quality. Adsit, D. (2007) defined quality control as the most necessary inspection control of all in cases where, despite statistical control techniques or quality improvements implemented, sales decrease. He further opined that if the original specification does not reflect the correct quality requirements quality control be inspected or manufactured into the product. Deming (1950), fourteen points that inspecting product for quality after they were manufactured was unacceptable. Instead, he proposed a process known as statistical quality control (SQC) that would use closely monitored performance measures to gauge quality as a product was being manufactured. Quality control may include whatever actions a business deems necessary to provide for control and verification of certain characteristics of a product or service. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the products, services or processes provided meet specific requirements and are dependable, satisfactory and fiscally sound. Essentially, quality control involves the examination of a product, service or process for certain minimum levels of quality. The goal of quality team is to identify products or services that not meet the company’s specified standards of quality. If a problem is identified, the job of a quality control team or professional may involve stopping production temporarily depending on the particular service or product, as well as the type of problem identified, production or implementation may not cease entirely. Usually, it is not just the job of a quality control team or professional to correct quality issues, typically, other individuals are involved in the process of discovering the cause of quality issues and fixing them. Once such problems are overcome, the product, service or process continues production or implementation as usual. As stated earlier, quality control can cover not just products, services or processes but also employees, because employees are an important part of any company/organization. If a company has employees that don’t have adequate skills, training, have trouble understanding directions or are misinformed, quality may severely diminished. When quality control is considered in terms of human beings, it concerns correctable issues. However, it should not be confused with human resources issues 2.3 The history of quality control. The Japanese were the first to adopt Deming’s fourteen points with great success. As an example, Deming learned of one Japanese factory that doubled production in just one year and was expecting to gain an additional twenty percent improvement the following year, with no increase in the amount of hours worked. All this occurred as a result of simply improving quality. What is most significant about this achievement is the year it happened 1951 many American and European companies chose to ignore these dramatic results and nearly perished as a result. Critics contend that the time American manufacturing plants realized that quality control was a significant issue, it was in late 1970s and Japanese firms such as Honda and Sony were taking over large portion of the American consumer market. In 1990s, most American firms have embraced quality control practices. Analysts indicate that when firms first began adopting these principles, many went too far, becoming bogged down in quality control charts and measurements of inconsequential operating factors. In too many cases, American industries went from ignoring statistical quality control (SQC) to applying it to every single facet of a business, no matter how small. This overemphasis quickly disappeared, however and has been replaced by a commitment to overall quality control that is unprecedented. Because Japan has been practicing quality management since 1950s, they are the leader in producing quality products in a number of industries and are still the role for American companies to emulate. For example, a study of â€Å"air conditioning industry in the early 1990s found that the worst Japanese air conditioning plant had an error rate that was less than one half of the best American company. And this drastic difference is largely due to the Japanese adherence to one of Deming’s most important idea that quality should be, â€Å"designed into† a product instead of â€Å"inspected out†. Japanese firms treat suppliers as equal, sharing information with them as if the suppliers were an internal department of the company. This ensured that quality is already a part of the product before it is even manufactured. 2.4 Quality assurance (QA). Quality assurance is all those planned and systematic activities implement to provide adequate confidence that an entity will fulfill requirements for quality. Often, quality control is confused with quality assurance. Though the two are very similar, there are some basic differences. Quality control is concerned with the product while quality assurance is process- oriented. Even with such a clear cut difference defined, identifying the difference between the two can be hard. Basically, quality control involves evaluating a product, activity, process or service. By contrast quality assurance is designed to make sure processes are sufficient to meet objectives. Simply put, quality assurance ensures a product or service is manufactured, created or produced in the right way while quality control evaluates whether or not the end result is satisfactory. The objective of quality assurance is not just to reject defective products, but to systematically investigate the causes of defects so that they can be eliminated. The figures below show the systematic diagrams of steps utilized by quality control and quality assurance in solving problems and how the two relates with each other. Fig.2.1 Typical quality control steps Fig.2.2 Typical quality assurance steps Difference between quality control and quality assurance Quality control Quality assurance Product Process Reactive Proactive Line function Staff function Find defects Prevent defects 2.5 Statistical quality control (SQC). Statistical quality control is use to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality professionals to tackle quality issues. Descriptive statistics. They are used to describe quality characteristics and relationship. Included are statistics such as: the mean, standard deviation, the range and a measure of the distribution data. Statistical process control (SPC). This involves inspecting a random sample of the output from a process and deciding whether the process is producing products with characteristics that fall within a predetermined range. SPC answers the question of whether the process is functioning properly or not. Acceptance sampling. This is the process of randomly inspecting a sample of goods and deciding whether to accept the entire lot based on the results. Acceptance sampling determines whether a batch of goods should be accepted or rejected. All three of these statistical quality control categories are helpful in measuring and evaluating the quality of products or services. 2.6 Components of quality control. These are the key components of quality control that were preached by Deming and practiced by the Japanese. a. Benchmarking It is a continuous process of measuring products, services and practices against your strongest competitors. It means using the best companies as the yardstick against which your company measures itself. If your company comes up short, then improvements must be made to ensure that your products are just as high in quality as those of your competitor. To successful benchmark, a company must first look closely at its own practices and conduct a rigorous self assessment once that self assessment is completed, the company has a good idea of where it stands on quality issues and can successfully compare itself to other companies. The self assessment must be honest and thorough. It should identify weaknesses, but should also highlight the strengths. Improving weaknesses that are identified should be tied to state company strategic aims. b Supplier Partnering. This is an increasingly common practice in the United States. Simply put, it means that manufacturers work directly with their parts and component suppliers to improve quality at the supplier’s location. This can involve direct participation in the supplier’s operations. That is, staff from the manufacturers might work on site at the supplier’s office or provide technical assistance and equipment or simply a very close working relationship rather than a simple business transaction between two unrelated companies. c Continuous Improvement (CI). This is a method for improving every facet of a company’s operations and increasing competitiveness by developing a company’s resources. The improvement can involve many goals producing products zero defects or achieving 100 percent customer satisfaction but CI has the same basic principles no matter what the goal Involve the entire company at all levels Find savings by improving existing processes, not by investing more money Gather data about company operations and quantify that data, which becomes the baseline against which improvements will be measured Do not forget that common sense is perhaps the most important component of CI Do not just give lip service to improvement-implement or practice ideas. d Quality Circle. It originates from Japan in 1962, and was introduced in United States in the early1970s. By the mid 1970s thousands of manufacturing plants, banks, hospitals and government agencies had implemented it. A circle consists of 3-12 employees from a given department and a representative of management. They meet on regular basis on company time to examine a limited range of issues related to department, identify and analyze problems and propose solutions. The focus of the circles is on improving of both the quality of the product and the product process. The members may consist of operators, supervisors, managers and so on. A good quality circle tries to overcome barriers that may exist within the prevailing organizational structure so as to foster an open exchange of ideas. The group members feels a sense of insolvent in the decision making process and develop a positive attitude towards creating a better product or service. 2.7 Implementation of Quality Control The expected stumbling blocks in implementing quality control come from the technical aspects of the tools (Grigg and Walls 1999). Therefore, the applications of quality control techniques require knowledge and training. Sufficient exposure to quality concepts and technical ability need to be considered to ensure that quality control activities are really efficient. This is particularly important if the industry intends to try new quality control or implement a quite complex and tedious quality control. The training does not only give important information and knowledge to workers but also build confidence and acceptance from them. ? CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Method of Data Collection. In the course of this project work, due to time and financial problems, the population of the study is limited to Benue Breweries Limited (bbl), Makurdi Benue State, makers of more lager beer. Data collection method used is Random sampling method. Random sampling method which is the purest form of probability sampling, probability in the sense that each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. The reason for choosing this method is to allow each member of the population equal and known chance of being selected. Data were collected on daily basis for four consecutive days, with each day twenty-five bottles were selected. The main aim of using this procedure is to allow the products and production process to be well monitored in order to make good decision, because a situation whereby on ‘Day 1’ production process could be excellent while the following day may encounter some shortcomings which may be due to mal-functioning of the machines or faults, that is to say any decision taken based on the ‘Day1’ will continue to affect the quality of production process in this company until proper inspection is carried out. And also the choice of this procedure is to help reduce the cost incurred. After each day collection, each sample is measured and recorded for the four consecutive days after which they will be analyzed. 3.2 Method of Data Analysis. The data analysis was based on the data collected from bbl for the four consecutive days which were represented in a distribution table in chapter four of this work. The data collected were processed and interpreted using some Statistical Quality Control (SQC). They are: Descriptive Statistics. They are use to describe quality characteristics. They will be used to compute the data collected which will also be used to compute both the Upper Control Limited (UCL) and the Lower Control Limit (LCL) and also the Centre line used in both mean and range control charts. The descriptive statistics that will be used in chapter four in analyzing the data collected are mean and range. The Mean. It measures the central tendency of a set of data. It is defined as the sum of all observation divided by the total number of observations. It is given by: X = ?_(i=1)^n?X i 3.1a n X = the mean of the sample. Xi = observation i, i = 1, 2, 3†¦n. n= the number of observation. In the course of this research work, in chapter four, the mean of each sample number was first calculated after which the average of the mean of the samples was calculated which was used as the centre line of the mean control chart. The average of the sample means is given by, W/E=E/RT X = ?_(i=1)^nX/n ? 3.1b n X = the average of the sample means. X = the mean of the samples. n = the number of observation. The Range. It measures the difference between the largest and the smallest observation. In the course of this research work, in chapter four, the mean of the sample range was used to compute both the Upper Control Limited (UCL) and the Lower Control Limit (LCL) of both the mean and range control charts. While the mean of the total sample ranges gives the Centre Line (CL) used in range control chart. The range is given by. R = XL XS 3.2a R = the range of a sample XL = the largest observation of a sample. XS = the smallest observation of a sample. The mean of the sample ranges is given by R = ?_(i=1)^n?R 3.2b n R = the mean of the total sample range. R = the range of a sample. n = the total of the sample. a Acceptance Sampling. It is a method used to make a decision as to whether to accept or to reject lots based on inspection of samples. The objective is not to control or estimate the quality of lots, only to pass a judgment on lots. It is adopted in order to reduce the cost incurred due to product destruction during inspection and testing. b Control Chart. A control chart (also called process chart or quality control chart) is a graph that shows whether a sample of data falls within the common or normal range of variation. It has upper and lower control limits that separate common from assignable causes of variation. We say that a process is out of control when a plot of data reveals that one or more samples fall outside the control limits. The x axis represents samples (#1, #2, #3, and #4) taken from the process over time while the y axis represents the quality characteristic that is being monitored (milliliter of liquid). The center line (CL) of the control chart is the mean, or average, of the quality characteristic that is being measured. The upper control limit (UCL) is the maximum acceptable variation from the mean for a process that is in a state of control. Similarly, the lower control limit (LCL) is the minimum acceptable variation from the mean for a process that is in a state of control. In the course of this research work control charts for variables (mean and range charts) are used because they are use to monitor characteristics that can be measured and have a continuous scale (such as weight or volume), in which volume content of the bottles is the major concern of this research work. In the mean chart(X-bar chart), the sample means are plotted in order to control the mean of a variable (volume) and also to detect any shift in the mean of product, while in the range (R-chart), the sample ranges are plotted in order to control variability of a variable and also to detect any shift in the dispersion. The reason for using both of the charts together were both the mean and the variation (spread) has to be under control. For computing both the upper and lower limit of mean chart is given by the below equations: Lower Control Limit (LCL) = X – A2 R 3.3a Upper Control Limit (UCL) = X +A2 R 3.3b X = the average of the sample means. R = the mean of the sample ranges. A2 = factor for control limit and has value equal to 0.73 for sample size n = 4. The Center Line (CL) is given by the average of the sample means= X For computing both the upper and lower limit of range chart is given by the below equations: Lower Control Limit (LCL) = D3 R 3.3a Upper Control Limit (UCL) = D4 R 3.3b R = the mean of the sample ranges. D3 and D4 = factors for control limit and have values equal to 0 and 2.282 respectively. 3.3 Measurement of the volume content of the bottles. In order to understand the whole processes involved, some certain quality terminologies have to be defined in terms of this research work. They are: Product Specification. It is often called tolerance .it is a preset range of acceptable quality characteristics, such as product dimensions. For a product to be considered acceptable, its characteristics must fall within this preset range. In this work the product specification used in bbl ranging from 600ml to 630ml. Defect. It can be defined as a departure of a quality characteristic from its intended level that occurs with a severity sufficient to cause to cause an associated product or service not to satisfy the intended requirement. In this work anything below 600ml or above 630ml is considered as a defect, because that is the product specification used in bbl. Materials. These are the materials used in this research work. They are: 1000ml measuring cylinder, a bottle crown opener, octanol (an organic solution), empty crates and a basin. Procedure of Measuring the Volume Content of the Bottles. Firstly, samples were randomly selected from the population. 1000ml measuring cylinder was provided which I ensured that it was not wet inside. The opener was used to remove the corks of the selected bottles. Then two drops of octanol were put into the bottles and was allowed for few minutes to dissolve the foams, after which the content of the bottle was turned into the cylinder. Readings were taken and it was recorded. These steps were repeated for all the samples collected. 3.4 Problems and Limitation of Data Collection. One of the steps in empirical research is to determine the most important obstacles to the research. A research is a process of discovering the unknown through the known, and in achieving this, input such as time, energy and costs are used for the benefits or value in terms of contribution to knowledge. In spite of these efforts put in place, it is important to mention that some extraneous circumstance could have created some imperfection in the methodology adopted. Apart from personal sacrifices, energy and money, a lot of time is required in the search of information, data collection and conducting of random sampling. Another problem that limits the quality of the research work was the non-availability of Nigerian Textbooks that could fully describe the situation of quality control in Nigeria. Thus, this research had rely largely on foreign textbooks, journals and periodic. In the next chapter the values of the measured volume of the samples gathered were regarded as the data and were presented on a data distribution table for analysis and interpretation. CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, CALCULATION AND DISCUSION. 4.1 Data Presentation and Calculation. Having concluded investigations to collect the necessary data, the focus of this chapter therefore is to present and analyze them in a form that will make the important features of the subject to be easily grasped and interpreted. This will enable the researcher evaluate the effect of quality control on productivity in bbl. It is expected that the results presented would be used as a guide in forming an opinion and recommendations on strategies and techniques for improving productivity. The results of the practical analysis were based on the data collected from one hundred bottles properly selected, measured and recorded collected from Benue Breweries Limited. This section involves presentation of data and calculation of the following: the samples mean, the sample ranges, the average of the sample mean and the mean of the sample ranges. Table 4.1 represents the raw data (unprocessed data) from the case study, while Table 4.2, represent the mean and range table which presents both the calculated means and ranges of the samples presented on the Table 4.1 Table. 4.1: Raw data distribution table Sample Number Observations (bottle volume in ml) 1 2 3 4 1 616 617 619 616 2 617 620 618 621 3 619 618 619 619 4 616 622 620 617 5 618 618 618 616 6 620 620 619 617 7 618 618 622 616 8 618 619 615 616 9 618 619 620 620 10 619 618 620 617 11 616 620 619 616 12 616 621 620 616 13 618 618 617 618 14 619 620 618 620 15 618 620 616 621 16 617 620 616 618 17 618 619 621 618 18 620 620 618 619 19 620 618 618 616 20 618 620 622 616 21 616 621 617 617 22 617 621 617 617 23 617 618 616 617 24 619 620 619 621 25 618 618 620 620 Calculation I. This involves the calculation of both the means of the samples and ranges of the samples using equations presented in the chapter three. Using the equation 3.1a the mean of the samples can be calculated X = ?_(i=1)^n?X i n Sample no.1: X1= 616+617+619+616 4 X1= 617.0ml. Sample no.2 X2 ¬ = 617+620+618+621 4 X2 = 619.0ml. Sample no.3 X3 = 619+618+619+619 4 X3 = 618.5ml. Sample no.4 X4 = 616+622+620+617 4 X4 = 618.8ml. Sample no.5 X5 = 618+618+618+616 4 X5 = 617.5ml. Sample no.6 X6 = 620+620+619+617 4 X6 = 619.0ml. Sample no.7 X7 = 618+618+622+616 4 X7 = 618.5ml. Sample no.8 X8 = 618+619+615+616 4 X8 = 617.0ml. Sample no.9 X9 = 618+619+620+620 4 Sample no.10 X10 = 619+618+620+617 4 X10 = 618.5ml. Sample no.11 X11 = 616+620+619+616 4 X11 = 617.8ml. Sample no.12 X12 ¬ = 616+621+620+616 4 X12 = 618.3ml. Sample no.13 X13 = 618+618+617+618 4 X13 = 617.8ml. Sample no.14 X14 = 619+620+618+620 4 X14 = 619.3ml. Sample no.15 X15 = 618+620+616+621 4 X15 = 618.8ml. Sample no.16 X16 = 617+620+616+618 4 X16 = 617.8ml. Sample no.17 X17 = 618+619+621+618 4 X17 = 619.0ml. Sample no.18 X18 = 620+620+618+619 4 X18 = 619.3ml. Sample no.19 X19 = 620+618+618+616 4 X19 = 618.0ml. Sample no.20 X20 = 618+620+622+616 4 X20 = 619.0ml. Sample no.21 X21 = 616+621+617+617 4 X21 = 617.8ml. Sample no.22 X22 = 617+621+617+617 4 X22 = 618.0ml. Sample no.23 X23 = 617+618+616+617 4 X23 = 617.0ml. Sample no.24 X24 = 619+620+619+621 4 X24 = 619.8ml. Sample no.25 X25 = 618+618+620+620 4 X25 = 619.0ml For the Range of the samples. Using the equation 3.2a the range of each sample can be calculated. R = XL-XS Sample no.1 R1 = 619–616 R1 = 3 Sample no.2 R2 = 621–617 R2 = 4 Sample no.3 R3 = 619–618 R3 = 1 Sample no.4 R4 = 622–616 R4 = 6 Sample no.5 R5 = 618–616 R5 = 2 Sample no.6 R6 = 620–617 R6 = 3 Sample no.7 R7 = 622–616 R7 = 6 Sample no.8 R8 = 619–615 R8 = 4 Sample no.9 R9 = 620–618 R9 = 2 Sample no.10 R10 = 620–617 R10 = 3 Sample no.11 R11 = 620–616 R11 = 4 Sample no.12 R12 = 621–616 R12 = 5 Sample no.13 R13 = 618–617 R13 = 1 Sample no.14 R14 = 620–618 R14 = 2 Sample no.15 R15 = 621–616 R15 = 5 Sample no.16 R16 = 620–616 R16 = 4 Sample no.17 R17 = 621–618 R17 = 3 Sample no.18 R18 = 620–618 R18 = 2 Sample no.19 R19 = 620–616 R19 = 4 Sample no.20 R20 = 622–616 R20 = 6 Sample no.21 R21 = 621–616 R21 = 5 Sample no.22 R22 = 621–617 R22 = 4 Sample no.23 R23 = 618–616 R23 = 2 Sample no.24 R24 = 621–619 R24 = 2 Sample no.25 R25 = 620–618 R25 = 2 Table. 4.2: Mean-Range distribution table. Sample Number Observations (bottle volume in ml) Mean(ml) Range 1 2 3 4 X R 1 616 617 619 616 617.0 3 2 617 620 618 621 619.0 4 3 619 618 619 619 618.5 1 4 616 622 620 617 618.8 6 5 618 618 618 616 617.5 2 6 620 620 619 617 619.0 3 7 618 618 622 616 618.5 6 8 618 619 615 616 617.0 4 9 618 619 620 620 619.3 2 10 619 618 620 617 618.5 3 11 616 620 619 616 617.8 4 12 616 621 620 616 618.3 5 13 618 618 617 618 617.8 1 14 619 620 618 620 619.3 2 15 618 620 616 621 618.8 5 16 617 620 616 618 617.8 4 17 618 619 621 618 619.0 3 18 620 620 618 619 619.3 2 19 620 618 618 616 618.0 4 20 618 620 622 616 619.0 6 21 616 621 617 617 617.8 5 22 617 621 617 617 618.0 4 23 617 618 616 617 617.0 2 24 619 620 619 621 619.8 2 25 618 618 620 620 619.0 2 Total 15459.8 85 Calculation II. This involves the calculation of the average of the samples means and the mean of the sample ranges using equations presented in chapter three. Using the equation 3.1b the average of the sample means can be calculated. X = ?_(i=1)^n?X n X = 15459.8 25 X = 618.4ml Using the equation 3.2b the mean of the sample ranges can be calculated. R = ?_(i=1)^n?R n R = 85 25 R = 3.4 Calculation for the Lower and Upper control Limit for the Mean (X- bar) chart. The lower and the upper control limit for the mean chart can be calculated using equations 3.3a and 3.3b respectively. Lower Control Limit (LCL) = X –A2 R Upper Control Limit (UCL) = X + A2 R X = 618.4ml R = 3.4 A2 = 0.73 LCL = 618.4 – 0.73(3.4) LCL = 615.9ml UCL = 618.4 + 0.73(3.4) UCL = 620.9ml The centre line for the mean chart (CL) is give by the average of the sample mean = 618.4ml Fig. 4.1the Mean Control Chart Calculation for the Lower and Upper control Limit for the Range chart (R- chart). The lower and the upper control limit for the range chart can be calculated using equations 3.4a and 3.4b respectively. Lower Control Limit (LCL) = D3 R Upper Control Limit (UCL) = D4 R R = 3.4 D3 = 0 D4 =2.282 LCL = 0 x 3.4 LCL = 0 UCL = 2.282 x 3.4 UCL = 7.8 The centre line for the mean chart (CL) is give by the mean of the sample ranges = 3.4 Fig.4.2 the Range Chart 4.2 Discussion. In evaluation of the quality control on the product produced in bbl Makurdi, Benue State. The means and ranges of the data collected were calculated and used to plot the mean chart (fig.4.1) and the range chart (fig.4.2). The mean chart (fig.4.1) is used to measure the central tendency of the product while the range chart measured the dispersion of variance of the product. Since, it is possible to have a shift in the mean of the product but not a change in the dispersion. This shift could be detected by the mean chart. On the other hand, it is possible to have a shift in the dispersion of the product without a change in the mean and this could be detected by a range chart. Since, a shift can be either in mean or range, in order to monitor the process effectively both the mean and the range charts can be used. That is main reason that prompted the use of both charts in this work. From the plotted points on the mean chart (fig.4.1), it could be seen clearly that none of the plotted points is above the UCL or below the LCL rather cluster round the centre line (CL), this shows that the process of production in this company is under control. Also from the plotted points on the range chart (fig.4.2), it could also be seen clearly that none of the plotted points is above the UCL or below LCL, rather cluster round the centre line. This shows that the process of production in this company is under control. Generally, the essence of the upper and lower control limit is to help detect when a process is out of control (i.e. when any plotted value is above the upper limit or below lower limit). CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Conclusion. In evaluating and analyzing of data gathered in the course of this research work regarding quality control on productivity in the brewery sectors in Nigeria, the following can be drawn: There are sign that quality control concepts improve the performance of an organization in terms of cost reduction, increase in productivity, competitiveness and customer satisfaction. The concept of quality control has been highly welcomed in this company as a way of life for customer satisfaction making the customer delighted as well as staff and in achieving corporate goals and objectives Finally, the importance of quality control in achieving success in business can hardly be denied. Peters and Waterman (1982) found quality to be an important element in the pursuit of excellence. Quality is therefore the best assurance of customer allegiance, strongest defense against competition and the only path to sustained company growth and earnings. Involvement of all the members of the company in the system is crucial if improvement in the performance and productivity is ever to be achieved with the adoption of quality control. Though, this is not easy to achieve but it must come from personal example and commitment. In addition, there must be consistency in the system as this can help change the entire process and maintain the competitive edge which the company seeks to attain. From the findings of this research work, it can be concluded that the machines and processes use in production in this company are effectively functioning well. 5.2 Recommendations. In view of the findings, the following recommendations are made. The practice of quality control should be regarded as an ongoing activity. As long as there are new ideas, innovations, developments, there should be no end to quality control process, so as to be able to cope with the dynamism of the modern world. There is need for top management to be more committed to quality control, as well as providing an enabling environment to incorporate all within the system in the quality control process. Similarly, there should be quality control awareness campaign a well as quality control meetings where programmes/ideas can always be discussed. The company should intensify efforts on cost reduction exercise. This can be done by providing regular staff training programmes for the staffs as this will help increase their knowledge, skills and prepare them for future challenges. Regular routine maintenance should be conducted on the machines to ensure steady efficiency of the machines. Inspections should always be conducted, data collected and analyzed in order to detect when the production is going out of control. Determine where current and potential quality problems lie. Take corrective actions, using established formal systems to remove the root causes of the problem. Encourage individuals and groups to set quality improvement goals. Encourage employees to communicate to management any obstacles they face in attaining their quality improvement goal. Train all employees in quality improvement. REFERENCE Antony, J., M. Kaye, and A. Frangou (1998): A Strategic Methodology to The Use Of Advanced Statistical Quality Improvement Techniques.The TQM Magazine, 10(3), pp.169-176. Breyfogle, F.W and J.M Cupello(2001): Managing Six Sigma: A Practical Guide to Understanding, Assesing and Implementing the Strategy that Yield Bottom-Line Success. JohnWiley and Sons, New York. Dale, B.G., H.S. Bunney, and P. Shaw (2003): Quality Management Tools and Techniques: An Overview. In Dale, B. G. (ed): Managing Quality,(4th Edition), Blackwell, Oxford. Deleryd, M., R. Garvare, and B. Klefsjo (1999): Experiences of Implementing Statistical Methods in Small Enterprises. The TQM Magazine, 11(5), pp.341-350. Grigg, N. P. and L. Walls (1999): The Use Of Statistical Process Control in Food Packing: Preliminary Findings And Future Research Agenda. British Food Journal, 101(10), pp. 763-784. Mahanti, R. and J. Antony (2005): Confluence of six sigma, simulation and software development. Managerial Auditing Journal, 20(8), pp. 739-762. Motorcu, A. R. and A.K. Gullu (2004): Statistical Process Control in Machining, A Case Study for Machine Tool Capability And Process Capability. Materials and Design, 27, pp. 364-372. Oakland, J.S. (2003): Statistical Process Control, 5th ed., Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Peters, T. and R. Waterman, (1994): In Search of Excellence in TQM, Macdonald Evans Inc. New York. Srikaeo, K., J. E., Furst, and J. ssAshton (2005): Characterization of Wheat Based Biscuit Cooking Process by Statistical Process Control Techniques. Food Control, 16, pp. 309-317. Xie, M. and T.N. Goh, (1999): Statistical Techniques for Quality. The TQM Magazine, 11(4), pp. 238-241. se Research Papers on Quality Control Measures at Benue Breweries Limited, MakurdiThe Project Managment Office SystemResearch Process Part OneAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

Answers to More Questions About Usage

Answers to More Questions About Usage Answers to More Questions About Usage Answers to More Questions About Usage By Mark Nichol Confusion about words or phrases with similar connotations or constructions is common; here are several questions from DailyWritingTips.com readers about usage, and my responses. 1. What is the difference between remuneration and emolument? The words have essentially the same meaning – â€Å"compensation or payment† though remuneration also pertains to payment by a customer or client, and emolument also refers to perquisites, or perks (privileges or offers for employees such as one’s own parking space or free use of a fitness center.) 2. I wish to know when and where to use toward or towards, and what is the difference? The words are variations with identical meanings. Towards is British English, though many Americans use it, especially in conversation. Toward is preferable in formal US English. 3. In my country, bottled, aerated drinks like Coca-Cola and Pepsi are called â€Å"cold drinks† universally. But a sizable community calls them â€Å"cool drinks.† How do I convince and let them know the difference between cool and cold? Also, many people use the term action in place of acting when it comes to describing someone’s performance in a film or a play. â€Å"Cold drink† (and â€Å"cool drink†) may be universal in your country, but there are many terms for carbonated beverages, so I think any effort to try to control usage in this case is futile. As for action used as you describe, English usage evolves, and what may seem like an aberration now will often become standard vocabulary in the future. Even if action never becomes formally acceptable as a synonym for acting, its persistence as a variant is probably inevitable. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Regarding Re:Among vs. Amongst25 Idioms with Clean

KTM One of the Leaders of Motorcycle Industry Term Paper

KTM One of the Leaders of Motorcycle Industry - Term Paper Example Its competency and high quality are due to its expertise in the manufacturing of core parts (e.g. engines, radiators and exhausts). In 1991, KTM went bankrupt and was purchased by Dr Rudolf Knà ¼nz, who is now the chief financial officer of KTM and Stefan Pierer, along with a couple of European Importers and a venture fund, later on, the two partners bought out the whole company from the importers. KTM went public in the year 1996 so that it could gain more market share, grow and be able to buy out its venture fund. In the late 1990’s there were talks of mergers and acquisition but the owners of KTM wanted internal growth. It again went private in the year 1999 so that KTM remained stable and under good leadership. This move was aided by equity financing from BC European. Most of the revenues that KTM generated came from its off-road motorcycle sales. Mainly form Motocross and Enduro bikes which were basically termed as ready to race bikes. These bikes were the most popular and growing products because of their short lifespan and as they introduced new models and upgraded them regularly. Other products that come under off-road bikes that KTM offers are sportminicycles, rally bikes and supermoto bikes. All of these generally relate to sporty and adventurous people and cater to all ages. For example, sportminicycles are entry level bikes specially designed for children. What’s different about KTM products is that they have a distinctive engine configuration and unique design elements. They are reliable, compact and extremely efficient and effective at a performance. Their styling is unique and is much more diverse than other Japanese bikes. They combine the Italian style with German engineering giving it a competitive advantage. These are all the features that are necessary for the off-road category. KTM generally uses its off-road racing as a major advertising strategy and marketing activities. Its main purpose is to promote its brand as a very adventurous and sporty brand and they do it by sponsoring such racing events.     

Intellectual propert law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Intellectual propert law - Essay Example Moreover, Betty’s business was apparently called â€Å"Betty’s† from the period spanning 1986 to 1994. However, the name â€Å"Betty’s† was never officially trademarked, at least the facts do not indicate that it was. If the name was trademarked, then obviously Betty would have a stronger case. However, Betty might have a cause of action for passing off. Passing off, traditionally a tort that referred to attempting to represent one’s goods as the goods of somebody else, has the modern definition of using a person’s goodwill and reputation in an attempt to benefit oneself, and, in the process, injuring the original person’s good name, reputation and connections (Taittinger and others v. Allbev Ltd. and others [1994] 4 All ER 75). There are five elements in the tort of passing off, and they are â€Å"1. A misrepresentation 2. Made by a trader in the course of trade, 3. To prospective customers of his or ultimate consumers of good s or services supplied by him 4. Which is calculated to injure the business or goodwill of another trader (in the sense that this is a reasonably foreseeable consequence and 5. Which causes actual damage to a business of goodwill of the trade by whom the action is brought or will probably do so (Erven Warnick BV v. J Townend & Sons (Hull) Ltd. [1979] 2 All ER 927). In examining these elements, it is unsure whether Betty can prevail on the tort of passing off. The first element is that there must be a misrepresentation. Calling her company â€Å"Betty’s Produce,† when Jenny had previously worked for Betty for a long period of time, and Betty’s business was known as â€Å"Betty’s† for a number of years would certainly seem as if Jenny is misrepresenting her own produce as Betty’s. Jenny was no doubt highly associated with Betty in the mind of the consumers and the people to whom Betty catered, so those people probably would assume that Jenny w as still with Betty, and that Jenny’s produce was Betty’s produce. Jenny would be using Betty’s name in the course of trade and to prospective customers, and these same customers were also Betty’s customers, so those elements are satisfied as well. Whether it was calculated to damage the goodwill of Betty is a question for which there is no clear answer. Certainly it seems that Jenny was attempting to capitalize on Betty’s goodwill and reputation, but whether or not she wanted to injure Betty is questionable. However, as long as damage to Jenny’s reputation is reasonably foreseeable, this element is satisfied as well. Betty worked hard to establish a firm reputation for her products. Jenny’s products might not have the same standard. If Jenny’s products are not the same standard as Betty’s products, then Jenny would be damaging Betty’s reputation. â€Å"a misrepresentation by B that his inferior goods are of a su perior quality, which is that of A’s goods, whereby people buy B’s goods instead of A’s, is actionable† (Reckitt and Colman Products Ltd. v Borden Inc. and Others, [1990] 1 All ER 873). Jenny was clearly trying to represent her products as Betty’s products, in an effort to get these restaurants to buy her products instead of Betty’s products, so this element is satisfied as well. As to the final element, that the passing off causes actual damage to Betty’s reputation, actionable damage can be that which is gradual depreciation to the reputation that Betty

Case analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 5

Analysis - Case Study Example There economy is likely to become self sufficient with less need to borrow to cater for the deficits in the economy. It is stated from the facts that the budgetary deficit will exist even if the provincial government stops spending on existing programs. This means that if spending is not reduced the budgetary deficits thus affecting the economy. However, this system seems defensive in approach. This is because the reality in ground is quite different. The unemployment levels have increased to 12.3 up from 11.5. This increases the need for social assistance. These developments need to be incorporated in the plan. This kind of approach may look good but it does not guarantee economic growth. It only ensures that budgetary deficits do not arise. Additionally, the contribution of the federal government is also shrinking. This policy on reduced cash transfers to the counties may have an effect in the total revenues of the country. This may mean that merely reducing expenditure may not be a solution to the economy. Option 2 does not seem viable. The economy is not performing well. This in essence means that measures should be adopted to ensure that the economy is robust. Reducing expenditure forecasts by reducing real spending while increasing taxations, is not adequate in creating an economically robust economy. There are other things that must be incorporated into the economy. As much as the main aim is to reduce deficits in the economy, there is also need for economic growth. This cannot be achieved by simply reducing expenses and increasing taxation. The production of the province should be increased. The service sector needs to be buttressed to improve its performance. This means that the government must increase it expenditure to meet this needs. The service sector affected the performance of foreign exports. This can only be remedied if proper steps are taken by the

Film review of an Australian feature film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Film review of an Australian feature film - Essay Example rican influence, most Australians in the 50s and 60s prefer American movies, but in the emergence of the Australian film industry revival the citizens had little choice on what to watch. The people in the industry struggled to make the industry alive by catering the needs of the Australian viewers (Cetti, 2010). The efforts were seen as great revival for the pride and culture of Australia as the government supports the local film industry. Despite of the popularity of American films in Australia, the local movie industry made its contributions to bring itself up. In line with its endeavor, the film Cane Toads: An Unnatural History together with other movies was made to promote its local culture. After all, movies are made to add value to the lives of people and the entertainment industry. Brens (2000, p. 60) stated that the film industry does not exist plainly for making money through movies. Perhaps the movie Cane Toads highlighted the topic of free will in contrast with needs of various people coming from different genders, social standings and their opinions regarding the fast increase in the population of a toad introduced in the 30s to combat the pests in the sugarcane plantations. The movie was presented not only as an eye-opener for the ecological consequences of the booming population of the cane toads but also to make use of the movie as a way of sociological inquiry as stated by Taussig (1992, pp. 79-80). The movie contained the natural science elements mixed with sociological issue that showed how culture can transform the view of people upon the existing pests. The cane toads came from South America and were brought to Queensland and other parts of Australia to remove the proliferation of grey back beetles that pester the sugarcane plantations. Sugarcane plantation owners lost profits as many types of sugarcane were destroyed by the beetles despite of the quick breeding of cane toads (Crotty 2006). Unluckily, toads cannot reach the beetles as those do

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF AGRO-INDUSTRIES IN SSA (CASE STUDY THE Thesis Proposal

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF AGRO-INDUSTRIES IN SSA (CASE STUDY THE CAMEROON DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION IN CAMEROON) - Thesis Proposal Example Our research shows CDC’s performance is generally good through not exceptional and is vital of the steady lives of thousands of people working there. The economic growth of Sub-Saharan African countries depends largely on their oil, mineral wealth and agricultural products. Being one of the driest areas in the world, the SSA countries depend upon their agro-industry for food commodities largely. There are many foreign as well as domestic agro companies present in these countries. According to UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization, their main aim is to "focus on increasing agro-industrial value added and employment along the entire agribusiness value chain in agriculture, industry and services". However, the impacts of these agricultural development companies which operate more or less like corporate conglomerates are highly debated. Environmentalists strongly argue, these companies are depleting the fertility of the soil in these areas by forcing the farmers to grow cash crops continuously. On the other hand, these companies are highly responsible for providing a steady employment to most of the citizens in t he rural areas of the SSA countries. The salary provided by them serves as a backbone for many Sub-Saharan countries economy. These companies help in improving the infrastructure of these nations to a great extent and help in improvement of various industries related to agriculture. Industrialization is generally looked upon as a major rival for agriculture. But, agriculture also serves as a main source for related industries in small economies prevalent among the SSA countries. The term Agro-Industries originated before a few years referring to industries which linked agriculture and its supporting activities together. These industries deal with packaging and processing of agricultural goods, modernization of agricultural practices and efficient

The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest - Essay Example It can be assumed that this was the case for the Pueblo people of the southwestern United States. By the time the Spanish first encountered the Pueblo peoples in the 1500s, they were already living in settled villages and had established trade agreements with neighboring tribes. The purpose of this paper is to discover more about who these people are, their pre-history, history after encountering Europeans and their conditions into the present day. The Pueblo people can be generally divided into two major groups – the Western Pueblos who engaged mostly in dry-farming and the Eastern Pueblos who were irrigation farmers living near the rivers (Eggan, 1950). In addition to their differences in form of subsistence, these peoples also differed in the languages they spoke. According to Eggan (1950), there were as many as seven individual languages spoken among these peoples, several of which were themselves complex blends of yet other languages. This illustrates the high diversity of the peoples generally grouped as Pueblo people as well as giving some sense of the age of the society at the time of first European contact as it takes a long time for languages to blend in this way. Major subdivisions popularly recognized include the Hopi and the Anasazi. Nearly all surviving Pueblo peoples today live in New Mexico and Arizona, with a few living in far west Texas. When the Spaniards came in contact with the Pueblo people, they noticed many differences between their culture and that of the Indians. To begin with, the Indians had a greater respect and appreciation for their women and expected women to take an active role in the welfare of the camp. Even as late as the 1800s, when many tribes had already been forced onto reservations or into more stationary roles, women retained much of this respect. Although speaking of Indians living nearer her own home, the same types of behavior

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF AGRO-INDUSTRIES IN SSA (CASE STUDY THE Thesis Proposal

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF AGRO-INDUSTRIES IN SSA (CASE STUDY THE CAMEROON DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION IN CAMEROON) - Thesis Proposal Example Our research shows CDC’s performance is generally good through not exceptional and is vital of the steady lives of thousands of people working there. The economic growth of Sub-Saharan African countries depends largely on their oil, mineral wealth and agricultural products. Being one of the driest areas in the world, the SSA countries depend upon their agro-industry for food commodities largely. There are many foreign as well as domestic agro companies present in these countries. According to UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization, their main aim is to "focus on increasing agro-industrial value added and employment along the entire agribusiness value chain in agriculture, industry and services". However, the impacts of these agricultural development companies which operate more or less like corporate conglomerates are highly debated. Environmentalists strongly argue, these companies are depleting the fertility of the soil in these areas by forcing the farmers to grow cash crops continuously. On the other hand, these companies are highly responsible for providing a steady employment to most of the citizens in t he rural areas of the SSA countries. The salary provided by them serves as a backbone for many Sub-Saharan countries economy. These companies help in improving the infrastructure of these nations to a great extent and help in improvement of various industries related to agriculture. Industrialization is generally looked upon as a major rival for agriculture. But, agriculture also serves as a main source for related industries in small economies prevalent among the SSA countries. The term Agro-Industries originated before a few years referring to industries which linked agriculture and its supporting activities together. These industries deal with packaging and processing of agricultural goods, modernization of agricultural practices and efficient

Sales Developing and Merchandising Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Sales Developing and Merchandising - Assignment Example s of the product, external sales development techniques, the tools and techniques of internal sales promotion and merchandising and role played by the staff in ensuring the success of the hotel. The hotel under consideration is called the APA Hotels & Resorts. As a point of departure, the APA Hotels & Resorts are headquartered in Japan. This hotel has a slogan that assures the clients top quality products and services. The hotel endeavours to attain non-nonsense frugality. A long side the normal services that are offered at a cost, the hotel offers a free breakfast. The rates are affordable. They range form 5500-14000JPY. The hotel has over 76 properties well spread across various nations. The hotel offers a wide range of accommodation facilities, which range from a single executive room for one person to double executive suite for two people. Consider the following cost of various classes of accommodation. In essence, the nature of products and services offered form a fundamental basis in which the organization creates its market niche. The larger the market niches the more the revenues. Essentially, in the hotel and & hospitality industry, the competition among the primary players depends on the quality of the products and the nature in which they are presented to the clients (JONES & LOCKWOOD, 2004). Giving more insight on the manner of product presentation in the modern business milieu has taken a technological dimension, which has seen numerous organizations embrace internet marketing and distribution. In the hotel industry, the hotels and resorts use internet application in creating channels, which help in the overall management of the organization (ANDREWS, 2009). The aspect of product differentiation is attributed to this context where the organizations such as the APA Hotel and Resort use the best procedures and superior raw materials to produce unique products. It is imperati ve to note that product differentiation helps APA Hotels & Resorts to identify

Perfect competition Essay Example for Free

Perfect competition Essay Monopoly and monopolistic competitions, basic concepts monopoly  means a  market situation  in which there is only a single seller and large no. of buyers. whereas  monopolistic competition  is a market situation in which there is large no. of sellers and large no. of buyers. in monopolistic competition, close substitutes are there in the sense that products are different in terms of size, colour,packaging,brand,price etc. as in case of soap,toothpaste etc. but in monopoly, there is no close substitute of the good,if any, it will be a remote substitute like in India, Indian railways has its monopoly but its remote substitutes are present like bus and air service. in monopolistic competition, there is aggressive advertising but in monopoly, there is no advertising at all or a very little. in monopolistic competition,demand curve faced by the firm is more elastic because of availability of close substitutes. it means if a firm raises its price, it will loose its large market share as customers in large will shift to close substitutes present in the market. But in monopoly, the demand curve faced by the firm is less elastic because of no close substitutes. if means if the firm raises its price, demand will not fall in a large quantity as it is only one in the market. u have to understand that the four different kinds, perfect, monopolistic, oligopoly, monopoly are on a spectrum with perfect and monopoly on the extremes, monopolistic is very similar to perfect, and monopoly is different that its a hard market to enter, because theres very few firms and require a big budget to get started. look up the graphs for these competitions and you should have a better understanding MONOPOLY IN TELECOMMUNICATION . Competition in Telecommunications Services Experience has demonstrated that free and open competition benefits individual consumers and societies as a whole by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and expanded consumer choice. The benefits of competition are readily seen in todays telecommunications sector. Dynamic technological change is resulting in new services and systems that provide innovative solutions to communications needs across the globe. As a result, telecommunications is becoming increasingly important to the efficiency and effectiveness of private and public sector institutions. In this environment of rapid change, a competitive marketplace will tap the potential of the telecommunications sector to serve the economic and social well-being of all citizens. BENEFITS OF COMPETITION Free and open competition benefits individual consumers and the global community by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and greater consumer choice than occurs under monopoly conditions. In an open market, producers compete to win customers by lowering prices, developing new services that best meet the needs of customers. A competitive market promotes innovation by rewarding producers that invent, develop, and introduce new and innovative products and production processes. By doing so, the wealth of the society as a whole is increased. In a competitive environment, businesses that fail to understand and react to consumer needs face the loss of customers and declining profits. A policy framework to establish, foster, and regulate competition is critical to the delivery of benefits expected and demanded by consumers. In other words, competition rewards entrepreneurship, responsiveness, and enthusiasm; it punishes sluggishness and indifference. Because of the increasing importance of the telecommunications sector to the overall economy, countries can ill afford the sluggishness and indifference that so often characterize the provision of products and services under monopoly conditions. As developments in technology continue to produce efficient and exciting communications services, societies may be significantly disadvantaged if they forego the rewards of entrepreneurship and responsiveness associated with open, competitive telecommunications markets. POLICY GOALS TO ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE MARKETS In order to achieve the benefits of competition described above, governments and regulators must establish an appropriate policy framework to govern the telecommunications sector. First, governments should remove legal barriers that protect existing monopoly providers from competition by new entrants. Second, policymakers should take affirmative steps to promote competition in sectors of the market that were previously closed to competition. Examples of these steps include adopting policies that encourage multiple methods and modes of market entry. Third, policymakers should consider introducing competitive safeguards to protect against the exercise of market power by incumbent carriers during the transition to competition. The most fundamental of these competitive safeguards involves regulation of the terms and conditions governing interconnection with the existing monopoly providers network. In the United States, although important steps were made to promote competition in the telecommunications sector prior to passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the law firmly established the intent to provide for a pro-competitive, deregulatory national policy framework designed to accelerate private sector deployment of advanced telecommunications and information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition. EFFECTS OF COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR The benefits of introducing competition in telecommunications markets are apparent in all segments of the telecommunications market. For instance, competition in the United States and many other countries in long distance and international telecommunications services has led to a dramatic decline in consumer rates for these services, as well as a dramatic increase in demand and a substantial increase in investment. International telecommunications services can be particularly important to the development of a stable and robust economy linked to the global marketplace. The 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services ushered in a new era for telecommunications competition in many countries of the world. As part of that agreement, 72 countries have made commitments to open their telecommunications markets to foreign suppliers of basic telecommunications services. As these countries implement their commitments, dramatic change has occurred in their telecommunications markets. In many countries, there are several new providers of international and domestic telecommunications services, and prices are dramatically lower. As a result, increased competition has led to lower international settlement rates in many countries which, in turn, has led to lower calling prices for consumers. Lower calling prices means that people can afford to make more calls, more often, creating closer ties between family and friends in different countries and strengthening business relationships. Thus, introducing competition in international telecommunications markets produces benefits throughout a countrys economy. In addition, as part of the WTO Agreement, 49 countries made commitments to open their satellite service markets. These commitments have helped increase the ability of global and regional satellite providers to obtain the requisite authorizations for their systems. Similarly, in many countries private investment and competition in the provision of terrestrial wireless telecommunications infrastructure has led to declining prices for, and widespread use of, wireless telephone service. In areas where teledensity can increase, moreover, price reductions may expand the number of households that can afford service. This increased demand may make build-out decisions more attractive. For example, in Chile, lower prices increased traffic by 260% from 1994 to 1997. In 1987, there were 6. 7 phones per 100 households in Chile; this number rose to 11 in 1992 and to 15. 2 in 1996. As lower prices stimulate greater demand, an overall increase in revenues results despite additional providers in the market. In the U. S. long distance market, lower prices, in combination with an expanding market for services, have offset revenue loss from price reductions and the decrease in market share. For example, while ATTs long distance market share fell from 90% in 1984 to 45% in 1997, its revenues increased from $35 billion to $40 billion during this same period. Thus, although ATT lost market share, its revenues increased in a competitive marketplace. The benefits from introducing competition in international and domestic telecommunications markets can be fully realized, however, only when market participants have the incentive to compete vigorously to attract the greatest amount of business. It has been the U. S.experience that these incentives exist only where there is open entry into the telecommunications services market. Where entry is limited, or where only one or two new entrants are allowed to compete against the incumbent carrier, the benefits of competition are limited as well. For instance, when cellular telephone service was first introduced into the United States in the 1980s there were only two licensees in each market. As a result, prices remained relatively high and demand was more limited. After additional licenses were authorized in each market, priced dropped, new services were introduced and demand exploded. BUILDING A TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR AS A PART OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Developing countries face many infrastructure challenges. While roads, water, and electricity are obvious fundamental requirements, development of a strong communications and information system is vital for the country to survive and prosper. As global developments increasingly push competition and its benefits, developing countries can realize these benefits in part through encouraging the establishment of an indigenous telecommunications sector. And one highly effective way to achieve this is to promote and nurture the growth of small and entrepreneurial entities within that sector. The United States experience provides some insight. Historically, most of the cutting- edge commercial and technology breakthroughs in the United States have been developed by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, from Alexander Graham Bell to Bill Gates. Additionally, Americas 22 million small businesses produce more than half of the nations gross domestic product, and businesses employing fewer than twenty people have created all 99.99 percent of the nations new jobs in recent years. Such a phenomenal success story is due not only to the free enterprise system and profit motive, but also to a carefully developed government policy of supporting and nurturing small businesses. The U. S. has implemented numerous federal programs to assist small businesses in harnessing the engines of economic growth and innovation loan guarantee programs, technical assistance programs, investment programs, anti- discrimination regulatory programs, outreach efforts, information and training programs. Congress established the Telecommunications Development Fund, some $25 million, to invest in promising new telecommunications businesses. Obviously the environment and situation of most developing countries is quite different from that in the United States, and overcoming an embedded monopoly telecom provider is something weve never had to do. Still, some basic steps privatizing, establishing an independent regulator, developing helpful tax and labor laws, a willingness to waive regulatory and filing requirements to the extent possible can produce great benefits. A developing country could make it a condition for foreign carriers and operators serving seeking to provide service to (or within) its territory to undertake efforts to promote or support indigenous and start-up businesses. Supporting the growth of small and entrepreneurial telecom businesses by various means can lead to permanent economic gains for developing nations economies, and to full participation in the global telecom marketplace. METHODS OF INTRODUCING COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR Restricting methods and modes of entry can cause investment distortions and result in higher prices to consumers. It is by allowing the marketplace to select preferred approaches that policymakers encourage efficient entry. Three methods are typically used to introduce competition into the telecommunications sector: * Facilities-based competition * Unbundling of network elements * Resale In addition, a technologically neutral policy fosters innovative systems and alternative facilities designed to meet the needs of the marketplace. For example, the construction of a wireless network may be more appropriate in some markets than the development of a competing wireline carrier. Facilities-Based Competition. When a new entrant constructs a network using its own facilities to reach its customers (i. e. , without using the incumbent carriers network), that type of entry is commonly referred to as full facilities-based competition. By developing a new network, a facilities-based competitor is not constrained by existing, possibly obsolete embedded plant and instead can install the newest, most efficient technology. As a result, the competitor will be able to supply new or additional services such as faster transmission and switching speeds or higher bandwidth capacity, and may be able to do so at lower costs than the incumbent. Facilities-based competitors not only directly benefit their customers but also create competitive pressure for the incumbent to upgrade its network. In addition, facilities-based entry allows the marketplace to drive competition with less regulatory presence. As discussed more fully below, full facilities-based entrants still require interconnection for the mutual exchange of traffic with other providers. New entrants customers need to be able to communicate with subscribers on other networks, especially the incumbents network where the majority of users obtain their service. Without the ability to interconnect on fair terms, a new facilities-based competitor cannot survive. Use of Unbundled Network Elements While full facilities-based competition has many advantages, it may not always be practical for a new entrant to construct an entire network. For example, it may be economically feasible to construct switching and long distance facilities but infeasible to construct local loops or last mile facilities that connect to customer locations. This might be due to economies of scale or the practical difficulties associated with acquiring needed rights-of-way. Thus, a second entry route is one in which the new entrant constructs portions of a network and purchases access to the relevant essential facilities of the incumbent providers network, such as the local loop. This method of entry is referred to as using unbundled network elements, and typically must be required by law or regulation. Entry through the use of unbundled network elements has a number of important advantages. First, it reduces entry barriers by allowing new entrants to begin offering service without having to construct an entire network. Second, on a longer term basis, it prevents the incumbent carrier from exploiting any residual monopoly power that may arise through remaining economies of scale or from the practical difficulties of obtaining needed rights-of-way, antenna sites for wireless systems, etc. Third, it allows new entrants additional avenues of innovation. For example, new entrants can purchase unbundled loops from the established carrier and use them with entirely different types of technologies (e. g. , packet switches based upon Internet Protocol (IP)) than those employed by the incumbent carrier. In this arrangement, consumers benefit from these new and better services and additional choices that competition provides. Regulatory intervention is necessary in order to require the incumbent carrier to unbundle its network and to price the resulting elements at economically efficient prices. More specifically, incumbents should be required to provide any requesting telecommunications carrier non-discriminatory access to elements of the incumbents network on an unbundled basis on rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. Incumbents should be required to provide any reasonable method of interconnection, including physical collocation or virtual collocation, or interconnection at a point between the incumbents and new entrants network. In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 identified a minimum list of network elements that incumbent local exchange carriers must unbundle. These network elements include: local loops, network interface devices, local and tandem switching capabilities, interoffice transmission facilities, signaling and call-related databases, operations support systems, and operator services and directory assistance facilities. In addition, new entrants should have access to pole lines, ducts, conduits, and rights-of-way owned or controlled by the incumbent. Resale In the telecommunications context, resale occurs when competitors obtain a service at a discounted or wholesale rate from the underlying, established carrier and then sell the service to their own customers. Resale can serve a multi-faceted role in promoting and sustaining competition in telecommunications services. Resale may be an effective entry vehicle for new entrants that may initially lack the necessary capital to build their own networks. Resale may also allow small competitors, which will not become facilities-based providers, to offer service. In addition, resellers may stimulate usage of the incumbents network, and thus may benefit the incumbent facilities-based provider and further growth of the entire sector. Moreover, this competition may help to keep prices lower for consumers, increase consumer choice, and ultimately stimulate economic growth. Experience in the U. S. long distance market suggests that resale can yield significant public benefits. Resale competition takes the form of arbitrage, where a reseller purchases a large number of minutes at a quantity discount and resells them to small customers at prices lower than the retail prices otherwise available to those customers. By providing affordable prices for the customer, resellers stimulate demand and thus compel facilities-based carriers to bring their prices closer to actual costs. At the same time, the increased competition from resellers expands the availability of innovative services, such as new billing terms and alternative rate structures. In particular, resellers can create consumer value by creating different billing plans or targeting their marketing to under-served groups within the community. Many countries have committed to a policy of resale as part of the WTO Basic Telecommunications Agreement to provide market access for basic telecommunications services. For smaller countries, resale provides some of the benefits of competition even if the total amount of telecommunications traffic generated is insufficient to attract multiple facilities-based carriers. Resellers may resell an entire service without modification, which is referred to as Total Service Resale. Resellers may also choose to obtain some services from the underlying carrier and combine them with services that they provide themselves. For example, a carrier may offer long distance services using its own switching facilities but lease long haul facilities from the incumbent provider. Resale also allows providers to offer bundles of different services without actually constructing the necessary facilities. By doing so, they can achieve certain economies in terms of marketing while providing a package of services for the convenience of their customers. For example, a local exchange carrier can offer long distance services without constructing long haul facilities. Similarly, a carrier offering both local and long- distance services could add mobile services to its package without constructing its own wireless network. In many industries resale occurs as a natural part of the development of markets. However, in telecommunications, a dominant carrier may be required by law or regulation to make its services available for resale. In particular, a regulatory requirement may be necessary to force the underlying carrier to offer services at a wholesale rate. In a competitive market, however, some providers may find a source of revenue in the provision of services on a wholesale basis. This often occurs when the facilities-based carrier has excess capacity on its network. In the U. S. long distance market, some carriers have constructed nationwide fiber-optic networks with the intent of offering transmission services on a wholesale basis to other carriers. Real market experience has shown that resale can spur competition. The growth of competition in the U. S. long distance market resulted from a combination of the facilities-based and resale competition models. From the early stages of long distance competition, facilities-based providers and resellers have actively competed against one another. This approach resulted in more affordable rates, new service offerings, and numerous new entrants. Despite the obvious benefits of resale, it has limitations. First of all, the reseller is limited to a greater or lesser extent by the technical features and functions of the underlying carriers network. This limits the ability of the reseller to innovate. Second, resale alone does not put competitive pressure on wholesale rates and services because the underlying carrier may not be subject to competitive pressures to innovate at the wholesale level. This means that the regulator must retain some degree of control over the pricing, terms and conditions of the wholesale offering. INTERCONNECTION, THE KEY TO COMPETITIVE SUCCESS The key to competition within telecommunications services is the ability of networks to interconnect. Interconnection allows communications to occur across networks, linking competitors so customers of different networks can communicate with one another. For competition to be successful at maximizing consumer benefits and innovation in the telecommunications market, carriers that compete for customers must also provide competitors with access to those customers. Shared access to customers occurs through interconnection, and access to all customers is necessary both for successful entry and for continued competition. If the incumbent, with the vast majority of customers, does not interconnect with new entrants, it is unlikely that the new entrants will remain economically viable. A regulatory framework is needed to aid in the transition from a monopoly environment to a competitive environment because a monopoly or dominant provider has a strategic interest to keep out or minimize competitors in its market. As a result, the monopoly or dominant provider has a strong incentive to limit interconnection. Therefore, a regulator that is independent of any operator and of inappropriate political influence should adopt rules that give new entrants bargaining strength equal to the incumbents. The price of interconnection (or transport and termination), for example, could serve as a significant barrier to entry for new networks. An incumbent monopolist has an incentive to demand a high price to terminate calls originating on a new entrants network and pay nothing for calls originating on its own network. In the United States, transport and termination charges are reciprocal and based on the long run incremental cost of providing the transport and termination on the incumbents network. Thus, the primary purpose of mandated interconnection is to foster a competitive environment that is fair to all competitors. Because the incumbent service provider has the vast majority of customers, a new entrant must be able to interconnect in order to provide full access to its customers. Without the ability to interconnect, new entrants would be severely restricted in their ability to compete with the incumbent. REGULATORY TOOLS FOR PROTECTING AGAINST THE EXERCISE OF MARKET POWER DURING THE TRANSITION TO COMPETITION Special problems may arise when a telecommunications carrier with monopoly power in the provision of a particular service or facility wants to offer a competitive service that is dependent upon the use of the monopoly service or facility. This may occur, for example, where competition has been introduced in the long distance and international markets but the local market remains a monopoly. The two problems are cost- shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. The first problem arises if the monopoly service is regulated on a rate-of-return (profit) basis. If so, there is an incentive for the carrier with monopoly power to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Shifting costs in this manner artificially raises the price of the monopoly service and allows the carrier to charge below-cost rates for the competitive service. This results in the captive customers paying above- cost rates for the monopoly services and hampers the development of a viable market for the competitive services. An example of this situation could occur when a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services wants to enter the long distance market or information services market. The second problem occurs when control over an essential service or facility necessary for a competitive service enables the monopoly carrier to discriminate in favor of its own competitive offering. For example, a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services has the incentive to discriminate in favor of its own long distance or information service. This discrimination may manifest itself in the form of better quality interconnection or faster installation times for needed facilities or services. What follows is an overview of some of the tools that are available to policymakers and regulators to discourage or prevent cost-shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. These tools or techniques can be used alone or in combination. The more stringent techniques may be appropriate when and where the threat is greatest. Less stringent techniques may be appropriate as competition takes hold in the previously monopolized market. Outright Prohibition on Providing the Competitive Product or Service One technique for preventing a carrier with monopoly power from cross-subsidizing and discriminating in the provision of a competitive service is to prohibit the carrier from entering the competitive market. Outright prohibitions have been and are being used in the United States. For example, the original agreement (Consent Decree) that led to the divestiture of the Bell Operating Companies from ATT prohibited the former from certain activities, including the provision of certain long distance services and information services. Under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Bell Operating Companies are prohibited from offering long distance services and alarm services until certain conditions are met. While outright prohibition prevents cross-subsidization and discrimination, it may also deny the public the benefits of possible economies of scale or scope that may be derived if the carrier is allowed to provide the competitive service. Outright prohibition may also deny the public the benefits of innovation that might come from the participation of the monopoly carrier in the competitive market. Price Caps for Regulated Monopoly Services. The incentive to shift costs from a competitive service to a monopoly service exists under profit regulation. Under price cap regulation, the prices of the monopoly services are capped (indexed to inflation and expected productivity increases). Price cap regulation has a number of advantages, including incentives for the carrier to be more efficient. It also discourages the monopoly provider from shifting costs from the competitive activity to the monopoly activity, because if the price of the monopoly service is capped, there is no incentive to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Separate Subsidiary Requirement Under this requirement, the carrier with monopoly power is allowed to provide the competitive service, but only through a separate subsidiary or affiliate. The separate subsidiary requirement is combined with an obligation that the monopoly carrier treat the affiliated company no better than it treats unaffiliated providers of the competitive service. In other words, the monopoly carrier must deal with the affiliate on an arms- length basis. The regulator has the ability to control the degree of separateness. Examples of the requirements for separateness can include requirements that the monopoly provider and its affiliate: * Maintain separate books of account * Utilize separate officers and personnel * Employ separate marketing activities * Not share common equipment or facilities * Adhere to certain restrictions on information flows that would unfairly benefit the competitive affiliate In addition, a typical requirement is that if the affiliate must obtain any transmission services from the monopoly provider, it must do so on a tariffed basis. Tariffing Requirements Tariffing is a fundamental technique traditionally used to protect users (both consumers and other carriers) against discrimination. Tariffing requires the regulated monopolist to file tariffs explaining its service rates, terms and conditions with the regulatory agency and to adhere to those rates, terms and conditions once the tariff is filed. Through the tariff and enforcement processes, which include opportunities for public comment, the regulator has some ability to prevent cross-subsidization and discrimination. Accounting Separation A requirement to maintain separate books of account can be adopted even without the imposition of a separate subsidiary requirement. Accounting separation typically requires the regulated monopoly provider to set up and maintain separate books of account for the competitive activity and to adhere to prescribed methods of separating costs. This provides a degree of protection against cross-subsidization. Imputation Requirements. An imputation requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to charge the same amount for a service or facility provided to a competitive affiliate or operation that it charges to an unaffiliated provider, and to include that amount in the price it charges for the competitive service. Service Quality Reporting Requirements A service quality reporting requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to collect date and report on the quality of the services provided to both affiliated and unaffiliated competitors. This helps regulators detect and correct discrimination in the provision of essential services or facilities to competitors. Resale Requirements As discussed earlier, a resale requirement has a number of advantages in promoting competition. Resale can also help prevent cross-subsidization. For example, where a carrier has market power in the provision of switched services but there is competition in the provision of private lines, the carrier may try to increase the price of the switched service in order to cross-subsidize and thus under-price its private line offering. If the carrier is required to allow the resale of the private line offerings, however, entrepreneurs could combine the private lines with their own switching, and undercut the prices of the monopolists switched service offering. This has the effect of discouraging the carrier with market power from engaging in cross-subsidization. Unbundling Requirements An unbundling requirement forces the regulated monopolist to make network elements available to competitors on an unbundled basis under rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. To provide incentives for entry, the price of an unbundled element should equal the long run incremental cost of providing the element. Unbundling was discussed earlier as a way of lowering entry barriers and promoting innovation, but it also guards against anti-competitive tying arrangements, which arise when the monopolist requires a customer (e. g. , a competitor) to buy something unneeded as a condition of acquiring an essent.